https://bermudageology.com/9-fossils/https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/hpim0855.jpgHPIM0855https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/20240506_173743.jpg20240506_173743https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/img_8067-edited.jpgIMG_8067 editedFigure 9c. Layer of fossil bivalves on Bird Island in the Great Sound. This bed of fossil bivalves of the genus Lucina is exposed on the surface of what was once a beach or a shallow sea bed. The shells are not in one piece – i.e. they are disarticulated – but on the other hand are not very worn, suggesting that they were transported only a short distance after their death. These remains are at 2 metres (6 ft) above present sea level and are considered to belong to the Devonshire marine member of the Rocky Bay formation with an age of approximately 120,000 years (Scale: 25 cent coin provides scale).https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/palmetto-leaf.jpgOLYMPUS DIGITAL CAMERAOLYMPUS DIGITAL CAMERAhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/lucina.jpgLucinahttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/img_3907.jpgLarge tree trunk mould on Saucos Hill coastSaucos Hill. This 1 m diameter tree trunk cast was likely formed by a Bermuda cedar. The fossil soil out of which it once grew can be seen at the bottom.https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/hpim1411-e1541790114215.jpgFossil tree impression in St DavidsThe Airport at St David's. This 10m high fossil tree cast extends up from the fossil soil out of which it once grew. https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/p1010224.jpgOLYMPUS DIGITAL CAMERAOLYMPUS DIGITAL CAMERAhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/tall-tree-e1541790159110.jpgTree mould at Coopers IslandCooper's Island. 10 m high tree cast has proved more resistant to erosion than the dune which entombed it.https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/tree-trunk.jpgMould of tree trunkSouthlands Beach.1 m high tree trunk cast.2026-03-20T18:58:34+00:00weekly0.6https://bermudageology.com/the-bermuda-volcanic-seamount/https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/depth-to-volcanics.jpgDepth to volcanicsFigure 2d. https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/volcanic-sand-with-inset.jpgVolcanic sand with insethttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/drill-core.jpgDrill Corehttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/picture52.jpgPicture5https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/picture4.jpgPicture4https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/picture31.jpgPicture3https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/picture2.jpgPicture2https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/picture18.jpgPicture1https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/north-atlantic-annotated.jpgNorth Atlantic annotatedhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/four-seamounts.jpgFour Seamounts2026-02-13T02:11:43+00:00weekly0.6https://bermudageology.com/dune-deposits/https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/dune-timing-1.jpgDune timingFigure 3q. Timing of Pleistocene dune formation on Bermuda relative sea level change during interglacial periods. https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/house-buried-by-dunes-bradley-post-card.-thought-to-be-circa-1900.-couertsy-ed-harris.jpgHouse buried by dunes Bradley post card. thought to be circa 1900. Courtesy Edward Harris3g. A boy is lowered into the chimney of a house buried by a sand dune either near Elbow Beach or Tuckers Town.https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/spittal-pond-west-2.jpgSpittal Pond westhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/spittal-pond-west-1.jpgSpittal Pond westhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/pb170134.jpgOLYMPUS DIGITAL CAMERAOLYMPUS DIGITAL CAMERAhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/warwick-long-bay-annotated.pngWarwick Long Bay annotatedhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/dune-arrangement1.pngDune arrangementhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/baygrape-cave-001.jpgBaygrape Cave 001https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/69055648-big5813.jpg69055648-Big5813https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/69055647-three5755.jpg69055647-Three57552026-02-09T10:41:49+00:00weekly0.6https://bermudageology.com/caves-of-bermuda/https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/walsingham-caves.jpgWalsingham CavesFigure 6c. Map of the cave network on the northeastern side of Harrington Sound in Hamilton Parish. The mapping project, which was undertaken by the Bermuda Cave Diving Association in 1986, was sponsored by the Bermuda Government. It shows the submerged passageways which connect various air-filled  collapse caves. At the northern end of the network are Wonderland Cave (re-named Fantasy Cave) and Crystal Cave. At the southern end is Vine Cave. The submerged passageways which connect these caves are approximately 0.7 km (0.4 miles) long.https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/strawmarket-cave-edited.jpgStrawmarket cave editedhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/caves-formation-in-the-islands-low-sea-level1.pngCaves formation in the islands - low sea levelhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/caves-formation-in-the-islands-high-sea-level.pngCaves formation in the islands - high sea levelhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/caves-formation-in-the-islands-lower-sea-level1.pngCaves formation in the islands - lower sea levelhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/caves-formation-in-the-islands-high-sea-level1.pngCaves formation in the islands - high sea levelhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/dsc_0150.jpgDSC_0150https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/cave-formation1.pngCave Formationhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/caves-walsingham-system1-e1529373169574.pngCaves - Walsingham Systemhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/fanatasy-cave.jpgFanatasy Cave2026-02-06T00:06:58+00:00weekly0.6https://bermudageology.com/bicliography/2026-02-04T21:24:57+00:00weekly0.6https://bermudageology.com/sea-level-fluctuations/https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/sea-level-curve.pngSea level curvehttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/hpim1500.jpghpim1500https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/gia2.jpgGIAhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/fig8a.jpgFIG8a2026-01-22T11:28:22+00:00weekly0.6https://bermudageology.com/13-palaeo-sea-level-at-the-lig-ii/https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/lig-sea-level-interpretations.jpgLIG sea level interpretations.Figure 13a. LIG relative sea level change as intepreted at various of locailites. The double peak and prolonged highstands are common features and many of the curves feature short-lived "surges". Each colour and associated number represents the source of the data which can be foun in the references. 2025-11-14T00:12:56+00:00weekly0.6https://bermudageology.com/marine-deposits-of-bermuda/https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/beach-annotated.jpgBeach annotatedFigure 4c. Ancient beach deposits on the South Shore, east of  Hungry Bay. These marine deposits of an ancient beach  are recognisable by the near-parallel seaward dipping strata of the beach face (A) and the flat crab-burrowed deposits of the beach berm (B). It is inferred that, at the time of deposition approximately 200,000 years ago,  relative sea level here was higher than today. These beach deposits of the Belmont Formation extend along the south shore from Hungry Bay to Watch Hill Park.https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/spittal-pond-beach-face.jpgSpittal Pond Beach Facehttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/st-davids-notch-2.jpgSt David's Notchhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/grape-bay-beach-step-annotated1.jpgGrape Bay beach step annotatedhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/doe-bay-notch.jpgDoe Bay notchhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/unconformity-e1540288709351.jpgUnconformityhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/watch-hill-park-conglomerate.jpgWatch Hill Park Conglomeratehttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/beach-step-vortex.jpgBeach step vortexhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/grape-bay-beach-step.jpgGrape Bay beach stephttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/grape-bay-shoreface-seqence.jpgGrape Bay shoreface seqence2025-11-11T18:44:28+00:00weekly0.6https://bermudageology.com/11-field-guide/blackwatch-pass-field-guide/https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/10/hpim1265.jpgHPIM1265Figure https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/bwp-for-web-site.jpgBWP for web siteBlackwatch Pass road cur. The cross-sections represent the east and west side of the road, respectively. The view in both cases is from the west facing east. i.e the west side cross-section is projected not actual. 2025-11-09T11:59:04+00:00weekly0.6https://bermudageology.com/spittal-pond-west-field-guide/https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/9b-p1010060.jpgOLYMPUS DIGITAL CAMERASection 9b. https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/5-with-annotations-2.jpg5 with annotationsSection 5. Medium scale sub-tidal, upper shoreface strata dipping down to towards the sea (left) are overlain by large scale low angle seaward-dipping beach-face strata. These marine deposits overlie a light brown protosol in the foreground, which is the same protosol featured at Site 4. Overlying the truncated beach strata on the right is another protosol and a dune with landward dipping slip-face strata. (Scale is provided by the 25 cm (1 ft) yellow rule in the middle of image).https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/5-with-annotations-1.jpg5 with annotationsSection 5. Medium scale sub-tidal, upper shoreface strata dipping down to towards the sea (left) are overlain by large scale low angle seaward-dipping beach-face strata. These marine deposits overlie a light brown protosol in the foreground, which is the same protosol featured at Site 4. Overlying the truncated beach strata on the right is another protosol and a dune with landward dipping slip-face strata. (Scale is provided by the 25 cm (1 ft) yellow rule in the middle of image).https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/5-with-annotations.jpg5 with annotationshttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/spittal-pond-west-locality-2.jpgSpittal Pond West LocalityFigure 1. Composite cross-section at Spittal Pond West. Sub-tidal shoreface strata and inter-tidal beach strata are separated from overlying aeolian dune strata by a disconformity/protosol. The section is approximately 50 m (160 ft) long, Protosols A and B are approximately 2.5 and 4.1 m (8 and 14 ft), respectively, above average present sea level.https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/9b-p1010060-1.jpgOLYMPUS DIGITAL CAMERASite 9a. This site, referred to in the geological literature as Spencer's Point, includes steep slip-face strata of a dune (at the bottom of the image) , a gently sloping erosion surface and overlying planar parallel dun-top accretionary strata. On the left is a cemented pile of large boulders (Site 9b). At the top right is a very large boulder occupying a notch. Sloping down to the left from this notch is an erosion surface on which rest slabs of displaced limestone and seaward dipping strata of a younger deposit. The dune has been mapped as belonging to the Belmont formation. The base of the notch is at 9 m (30 ft) above present average sea level. https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/9c-p1010062.jpgOLYMPUS DIGITAL CAMERASite 9b. Accumulation of large boulders in a cemented matrix of coarse marine sand at 6.5 m (21 ft) above present average sea level. https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/8-hpim1255-1.jpg8 HPIM1255 (1)Section 8. An upward-shallowing sequence at this section consists of landward dipping sub-tidal strata, planar seaward dipping beach-face strata, a protosol, slip-face strata of a mobile dune and horizontal topset strata of a stabilized accreting dune. The base of the protosol, or top of the marine deposits, is at 2.7 m (9ft) above present average sea level. https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/7-img_0007.jpg7 IMG_0007Section 7. A dislodged slab of Belmont limestone close to 1 m (3 ft) long in the center of the image is perched at 5.2 m (17 ft) above present sea level. It is in a cemented matrix of coarse marine conglomerate, from a which a post-Belmont high sea level event, probably associated with the last interglacial period is inferred.https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/6-hpim1253.jpg6 HPIM1253Section 5. This section features a complete Belmont formation beach-dune system as viewed from the seaward side. In the lower foreground are upper shoreface beach-step strata. Above these, extending landward, are the seaward-dipping planar strata of the beach-face. In the background a white protosol overlies truncated beach strata. Above the protosol is the steep landward dipping strata of a transgressive dune. 2025-11-06T20:40:15+00:00weekly0.6https://bermudageology.com/palaeo-sea-level-at-mis-11/2025-10-31T23:27:33+00:00weekly0.6https://bermudageology.com/earthquakes-and-faults/https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Fracture.jpgOLYMPUS DIGITAL CAMERAOLYMPUS DIGITAL CAMERAhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/IMG_1867.jpgIMG_1867https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Fault-Wilkinsons2.jpgFault Wilkinsons2Figure 10e. Reverse fault Wilkinson's Quarry, Hamilton Parish with 3 m displacement. https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Fault-Westgate.jpgFault WestgateFigure 10d. Two reverse faults at Westgate, Ireland Island with combined displacement of 1.5 m.https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Fault-Tuckers-Point.jpgFault Tuckers PointFigure 10c. Reverse fault with associated drag fold at Tucker's Point with 2 m displacementhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Fault-St-Davids-Head.jpgFault St Davids HeadFigure 10b. Reverse fault at St David's Head with 1 m displacement.https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Fault-Wilkinsons-1.jpgFault Wilkinsons2025-10-31T19:20:13+00:00weekly0.6https://bermudageology.com/pleistocene-palaeo-sea-levels-the-record-at-bermuda-the-bahamas-florida-and-australia/https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/lig-rsl-at-bermuda.pngLIG RSL at BermudaVarious interpretations of relative sea level (RSL) at Bermuda during the LIG. Sources are identified by numbers in brackets which are compiled in the bibliography. 2025-10-27T00:47:18+00:00weekly0.6https://bermudageology.com/photo-gallery/https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/bermuda-platform-18-oct-2014-hurricane-gonzalo-cat-3.jpgBermuda platform 18 Oct 2014 Hurricane Gonzalo Cat 3https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/img_8062.jpgIMG_8062Figure 6. Thick fossil soil at Horsehoe Bay. This deposit grades upward from a thin choclate brown layer at its base through a rust coloured zone  to an accumulation of white sand at the top. It contains broken fragments of land snails which, together with the structureless character of the deposit, suggests that it underwent bioturbation. It is identified as an immature soil known as a protosolhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/tilted-columns-a.jpgOLYMPUS DIGITAL CAMERAFigures https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/dsc08199-a-1.jpgDSC08199 a<strong>Figure 6. Thick fossil soil at Horsehoe Bay.</strong> This deposit grades upward from a thin choclate brown layer at its base through a rust coloured zone  to an accumulation of white sand at the top. It contains broken fragments of land snails which, together with the structureless character of the deposit, suggests that it underwent bioturbation. It is identified as an immature soil known as a protosol (See <span style="color: #0000ff">Chapter 6</span>) which was formed largely by wind deposition, potentially ahead of a rising sea level. Its thickness (~4m or 12ft)  is likely attributable to accumulation in a shletered valley. (Scale is provided  by the small rucksack).https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/dsc08187-a.jpgDSC08187 aFigure 5. Cliff cut into beach at Warwick Long Bay.https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/dsc08238-a.jpgDSC08238 aFigure **https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/mud_cracks.jpgOLYMPUS DIGITAL CAMERAOLYMPUS DIGITAL CAMERA2025-10-14T00:19:12+00:00weekly0.6https://bermudageology.com/14-palaeo-sea-level-at-the-penultimate-interglacial-mis7/https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/img_2299.jpgIMG_2299MIS7 Shoreface marine deposits at Grape Bay2025-09-10T20:01:33+00:00weekly0.6https://bermudageology.com/formations-of-bermuda/https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/walsingham-vs-other.jpgWalsingham vs otherFigure 5f. A Bermuda limestone wall at Dockyard which exhibits the difference in cohesiveness between Walsingham Formation building stone to the left and that of a younger formation (possibly Town Hill) to the right. https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/hydrogeology.pngHydrogeologyhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/img-20181226-wa0002-e1546825740146.jpgimg-20181226-wa0002https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/closeup-walsingham-fmn.jpgCloseup Walsingham Fmnhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/closeup-town-hill-fmn.jpgCloseup Town Hill Fmnhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/closeup-southampton-fmn.jpgCloseup Southampton Fmnhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/geological-map.jpgGeological Map2025-08-22T00:10:23+00:00weekly0.6https://bermudageology.com/15-palaeo-sea-levels-post-lig-at-mis5a/2025-08-06T00:43:36+00:00weekly0.6https://bermudageology.com/the-origins-of-bermuda/https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/high-sea-level-new-dunes-1.pngHigh sea level new duneshttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/low-sea-level-forested-platform-1.pngLow sea level forested platform2025-07-04T22:43:38+00:00weekly0.6https://bermudageology.com/11-field-guide/devonshire-bay/https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/rocky-bay-section-1.jpgRocky Bay Sectionhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/picture1.jpgPicture1https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/guide-illustration.jpgGuide illustrationhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/headland-section.jpgHeadland Sectionhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/hpim0447-1.jpgHPIM0447https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/rocky-bay-close-up-1.jpgRocky bay close-uphttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/rb-marine-with-c.-pica.jpgRB marine with C. Picahttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/img_1848.jpgIMG_1848https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/img_7818-2.jpgIMG_7818https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/hpim1363-2.jpgHPIM13632025-06-03T23:35:19+00:00weekly0.6https://bermudageology.com/fossil-soils/https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/soil-pipe.pngSoil pipehttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/hpim0980.jpgHPIM0980https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/img_77221.jpgIMG_7722https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/hpim1291.jpgHPIM1291Figure 32. Palmeto Stumps from Grape bay Bermuda found there is com abundancehttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/p4060032-e1537143932103.jpgOLYMPUS DIGITAL CAMERAOLYMPUS DIGITAL CAMERAhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/img_2412-e1537146487324.jpgIMG_2412https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/pa180007.jpgOLYMPUS DIGITAL CAMERAOLYMPUS DIGITAL CAMERAhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/p3210074.jpgOLYMPUS DIGITAL CAMERAOLYMPUS DIGITAL CAMERAhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/keith-hall1.jpgKeith Hall1Figure 6h. Pinkish 2 m thick protosol at junction of Keith Hall Road and Middle Road. Town Hill Formation.https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/hpim0521.jpgHPIM0521Figure 6e. White 0.75 m thick protosol on Knapton Hill. Belmont Formation.2025-06-03T22:56:01+00:00weekly0.6https://bermudageology.com/whalebone-bay/https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/locality-cross-section.jpgLocality cross sectionhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/whalebone-bay-whole-section.jpgWhalebone Bay whole sectionhttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/beach-strata.jpgBeach stratahttps://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/img_7916.jpgIMG_7916https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/img_7911.jpgIMG_7911https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/picture1-1.jpgPicture12025-06-03T22:37:44+00:00weekly0.6https://bermudageology.com/12-pleistocene-palaeo-sea-level-research/2025-03-03T22:19:03+00:00weekly0.6https://bermudageology.com/pleistocene-palaeo-sea-level-research/2024-09-12T23:17:49+00:00weekly0.6https://bermudageology.com/11-field-guide/2023-10-10T00:52:13+00:00weekly0.6https://bermudageology.com/watch-hill-park-field-guide/https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/14.jpg14https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/13.jpg13https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/12.jpg12https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/11.jpg11https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/10.jpg10https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/9.jpg9https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/8.jpg8https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/location-satellite-image.jpgLocation satellite imageSatellite image of the Watch Hill Park locality. Click on image to enlarge.https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/7.jpg7https://bermudageology.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/6.jpg62022-10-29T00:22:57+00:00weekly0.6https://bermudageology.com/contact/2018-05-06T01:59:17+00:00weekly0.6https://bermudageology.comdaily1.02026-03-20T18:58:34+00:00